الفهرس 
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Abstract
Throughout human history, people have settled in the coastal areas due to their moderate climate and abundant resources. Nowadays, 60-70 % of the global population lives within 100 km from the sea, where coastal areas and maritime activities are pivotal drivers of the global economic growth (Behnam, 2013). Though the coastal areas became increasingly important to the livelihood and human well-being, they became increasingly subjected to multiple exponentially growing threats elicited by the interference between natural and man-made pressures (Garrison, 2008). These pressures are provoked by rapid economic development, overpopulation, poverty, misuse of resources, and irrational development, added to global concerns such as global climate change and sea-level rise. Effective governance, enabled institutions, solid policies and legislation, change in public culture through education; are important to the continuing capacity of coastal systems to support socio-economic development and environmental reduce stresses (UNEP, 2012). The degradation of coastal areas is manifested in several forms and multitudes such as shoreline modification, pollution, reduced water, and sediment quality, severe impacts on biodiversity and productivity, loss of sensitive environments (e.g. coral reefs and mangroves), fisheries depletion, loss of aesthetic and environmental value and resource depletion (UNEP, 2012; Behnam, 2013; IPCC, 2014).